Description
Potamopyrgus antipodarum (New Zealand Mud Snail) is a small snail, primarily occurring in freshwater, but also tolerating brackish to near-marine salinities in estuaries (Leclair and Cheng 2011; Hoy et al. 2012). All introduced populations are clonal, reproducing parthenogenetically, and can vary considerably in shape, size, color, and shell ornamentation, even within one population, as well as among clones. Some individuals and clones show a sharp, bristly keel on the whorls (Winterbourn 1970; Ponder 1988; New Zealand Mudsnail Management and Control Working Group 2007; Loo 2011; Butkus et al. 2012). At least 4 clones are known from North America, 3 from Western North America, and one in Great Lakes. The clone found in the Great Lakes is also widespread in Europe (Dybdahl and Drown 2011).
Taxonomy
| Kingdom | Phylum | Class | Order | Family | Genus |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Animalia | Mollusca | Gastropoda | Neotaenioglossa | Hydrobiidae | Potamopyrgus |
Synonyms
Invasion History
Chesapeake Bay Status
| First Record | Population | Range | Introduction | Residency | Source Region | Native Region | Vectors |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2013 | Established | Expanding | Introduced | Unconfirmed | North America | New Zealand | Fisheries(Fisheries-Accidental) |
History of Spread
Potamopyrgus antipodarum (New Zealand Mud Snail) is native to fresh and brackish waters of the North and South Islands of New Zealand. In the 18th/19th centuries, it was introduced to Tasmania and southeastern Australia (first reported 1870), and to Europe (England- 1859) and spread rapidly in both continents (Winterbourn 1970; Ponder 1988). Possible vectors include dry ballast and the drinking water casks of sailing ships. In Europe, its range runs from the British Isles and Spain east through the Baltic and Black Seas in interior fresh and coastal brackish waters (Nikolaev 1951; Ponder 1988; Leppakoski and Olenin 2000; Radea et al. 2008). Along the marine coasts of Europe, it prefers the fresher portions of estuaries but does tolerate salinities above 18 PSU (Gerard et al. 2003). This snail has also been introduced to Iraq (Naser and Son 2009) and Japan (Shimada and Misako 2003).
The New Zealand Mud Snail has been transported by a wide range of vectors. While ships' drinking water barrels were a likely historical vector for introduction to Europe (Ponder 1988), subsequent dispersal modes probable included hull fouling on boats and ships, transport through canals, dry ballast, ballast water; transport on fishing gear, and with stocked fishes, with ornamental aquatic plants (Eno et al. 1997; New Zealand Mudsnail Management and Control Plan Working Group 2007; Davidson et al. 2008). Natural dispersal on birds' feet and guts is also likely (van Leeuwen 2012). The snail's small size, salinity tolerance, and parthenogenetic reproduction has enabled widespread transport (Alonso and Castro-Diez 2012). Multiple parthenogenetic clones exist in New Zealand and Australia, and many have been introduced. At least 4 have been introduced to North America, 3 probably directly from New Zealand Australian origin to Western North America, and one, via Europe, to the Great Lakes (Dybdahl and Drown 2011).
In 1987, Potamopyrgus antipodarum was first collected in North America in the headwaters of the Snake River, Idaho, and subsequently spread to the headwaters of the Missouri River in Montana. At least three clones exist in Western North America, a widespread form (US 1), derived from New Zealand, and two with restricted ranges in the Snake River (US 1a, US3 (Dybdahl and Drown 2011; Hershler et al. 2012). Its spread to other parts of North America has been rapid, but spotty, on boats, fishing gear, boots and waders, with stocked fish, etc. It was collected in the Columbia River estuary near Astoria in 1996 by James Carlton (personal communication, Davidson et al. 2008) and has subsequently spread into fresh and brackish waters up and down the West Coast, north to Port Alberni Inlet, on the west side of Vancouver Island, British Columbia, (2007, Davidson et al. 2008) and south, to the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta (2003), and the Santa Clara estuary, Ventrua County CA (2012),(USGS Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Program 2014) . (OR, 1999), Coos Bay (OR, 2005), Alsea Bay (OR, 2007) (Yaquina Bay, 2008), Tillamook Bay (OR, 2007), Long Beach (WA, 2002, Willapa Bay tributaries) (Davidson et al. 2008), and Grays Harbor (WA, USGS Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Program 2013). In 2007, it was collected in Port Alberni Inlet, on the west side of Vancouver Island, British Columbia, at a salinity of 5 PSU (Davidson et al. 2008).
Potamopyrgus antipodarum spread in a spotty fashion in the Intermountain West of North America, from the Snake River, Idaho, in 1997, appearing in the Madison River, Montana-Wyoming, in 1994-1995, in the Green-Colorado system, and the Great Salt Lake basin in Utah in 2001. It was found in the Colorado river in Arizona in 1996, and in southeastern California, in the Owens River Valley. In 2004-2005, populations were found in the South Platte River drainage, east of Rockies in Colorado (USGS Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Program 2013; New Zealand Mudsnail Management and Control Plan Working Group 2007). This pattern of widely scattered dispersal suggests a diverse mixture of anthropogenic vectors, and possibly natural transport by birds, as well.
In 1991, P. antipodarum was found at Wilson, New York on Lake Ontario (Zaranko et al. 1997). It has spread in the Great-Lakes St. Lawrence system to Prescott, Ontario on the St. Lawrence River in 2004 (USGS Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Program 2013) 2009), Lake Erie in 2005, Thunder Bay, Ontario and the St. Louis River estuary, near Duluth, Minnesota (2005), and Lake Michigan (2006, Trebitz et al. 2005; USGS Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Program 2013). The Great Lakes population belongs to a clone (US2) which has a mitochrondrial DNA profile identical to the EU A clone widespread in Europe (Dybdahl and Drown 2011). This snail was probably transported to the Great Lakes in ballast water of trans-Atlantic ships (Zaranko et al. 1997).
In 2013, it was found to be abundant in Spring Creek, in the Bald Eagle Creek (upper Susquehanna) watershed in central Pennsylvania, roughly 200 km from the head of Chesapeake Bay (USGS Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Program 2013). This is its first occurrence in an Atlantic drainage outside the Great-Lakes-St. Lawrence system. In September, 2017, P. antipodarum was found closer to Chesapeake Bay, in the Big Gunpowder River, about 50 km from tidal waters (Dance 2017). GARP modeling (Genetic Algorithm for Rule-set Production) predicts that this snail could colonize coastal drainages from Chesapeake Bay to Nova Scotia, and the Mississippi Basin, to the edge of the Great Plains (Loo et al. 2007). The New Zealand Mud Snail is thus a likely future invader in the Chesapeake Bay.
Invasion Comments
None
Ecology
Environmental Tolerances
| For Survival | For Reproduction | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Minimum | Maximum | Minimum | Maximum | |
| Temperature (ºC) | 2.0 | 31.0 | ||
| Salinity (‰) | 0.0 | 32.0 | 0.0 | 15.0 |
| Oxygen | None | |||
| pH | ||||
| Salinity Range | fresh-poly |
Age and Growth
| Male | Female | |
|---|---|---|
| Minimum Adult Size (mm) | 3.5 | |
| Typical Adult Size (mm) | 5.0 | |
| Maximum Adult Size (mm) | 13.0 | |
| Maximum Longevity (yrs) | ||
| Typical Longevity (yrs |
Reproduction
| Start | Peak | End | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Reproductive Season | |||
| Typical Number of Young Per Reproductive Event |
|||
| Sexuality Mode(s) | |||
| Mode(s) of Asexual Reproduction |
|||
| Fertilization Type(s) | |||
| More than One Reproduction Event per Year |
|||
| Reproductive Startegy | |||
| Egg/Seed Form |
Impacts
Economic Impacts in Chesapeake Bay
Potamopyrgus antipodarum (New Zealand Mud Snail) currently has a limited known distribution in the upper reaches of Chesapeake Bay watershed (USGS Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Program 2014). No imapcts are known now, but this snail is expected to become widespread and abundant in fresh and brackish waters in the future.
Economic Impacts Outside of Chesapeake Bay
Specific economic impacts of the New Zealand Mud Snail have not been reported in North America. However, it is suspected to have an negative impact on fisheries, because it seems to be poorly digested, and under-consumed, relative to its abundance, by many fish species. It is generally regarded as a competitor with native snails, and a threat to biodiversity, especially of isolated streams and springs (New Zealand Mudsnail Management and Control Plan Working Group 2007; Bersine et al. 2008; Vinson and Baker 2008; Brenneis et al. 2011). These concerns have prompted research on control and eradication methods, and prompted education programs for fishermen and boaters (Richards et al. 2012; New Zealand Mudsnail Management and Control Plan Working Group 2007; Alonso and Castro-Díez 2012; Leclair and Cheng 2012). In Australia, this species has been known to foul water tanks and clog drinking water pipes. (Ponder 1988).
Ecological Impacts on Chesapeake Native Species
At present, Potamopyrgus antipodarum (New Zealand Mud Snail) has only a local known distribution in the upper Chesapeake Bay watershed, about 200 km from tidal waters. Specific economic impacts of the New Zealand Mud Snail have not been reported in North America. However, it is suspected to have an negative impact on fishes, because it seems to be poorly digested, and under-consumed, relative to its abundance, by many fish species. It is generally regarded as a competitor with native snails, and a threat to biodiversity, especially of isolated streams and springs (New Zealand Mudsnail Management and Control Plan Working Group 2007; Bersine et al. 2008; Vinson and Baker 2008; Brenneis et al. 2011).
Ecological Impacts on Other Chesapeake Non-Native Species
None
References
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